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  2. Modulo (mathematics) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulo_(mathematics)

    Modulo is a mathematical jargon that was introduced into mathematics in the book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801. [3] Given the integers a, b and n, the expression "a ≡ b (mod n)", pronounced "a is congruent to b modulo n", means that a − b is an integer multiple of n, or equivalently, a and b both share the same remainder when divided by n.

  3. Natural logarithm - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm

    Nowadays, more formally, one can prove that the harmonic series truncated at N is close to the logarithm of N, when N is large, with the difference converging to the Euler–Mascheroni constant. The figure is a graph of ln(1 + x ) and some of its Taylor polynomials around 0.

  4. Exponentiation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation

    In mathematics, exponentiation is an operation involving two numbers: the base and the exponent or power.Exponentiation is written as b n, where b is the base and n is the power; this is pronounced as "b (raised) to the (power of) n ". [1]

  5. Factorial - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorial

    In mathematics, the factorial of a non-negative integer, denoted by !, is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to . The factorial of also equals the product of with the next smaller factorial: ! = () = ()! For example, ! =! = =

  6. Significant figures - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures

    Hoping to reflect the way in which the term "accuracy" is actually used in the scientific community, there is a recent standard, ISO 5725, which keeps the same definition of precision but defines the term "trueness" as the closeness of a given measurement to its true value and uses the term "accuracy" as the combination of trueness and precision.

  7. Mathematical optimization - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimization

    Asset prices are also modeled using optimization theory, though the underlying mathematics relies on optimizing stochastic processes rather than on static optimization. International trade theory also uses optimization to explain trade patterns between nations. The optimization of portfolios is an example of multi-objective optimization in ...

  8. Rational number - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number

    In mathematics, a rational number is ... the first use of ratio with its modern meaning was attested in English about ... as it must fix the sum and the difference of ...

  9. Absolute value - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value

    The notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see "Distance" below). Since the square root symbol represents the unique positive square root, when applied to a positive number, it follows that | x | = x 2 . {\displaystyle |x|={\sqrt {x^{2}}}.}